Penguins

1. Penguins

   #1

   They are extraordinarily like children, these little people of the Antarctic world, either like children, or like old men, full of their own importance and late for dinner, in their black tail-coats and white shirt-fronts — and rather portly withal.

2. Penguins

   #2

   Well, fish is their main diet....so yup, i'd say lil old men! Sounds about right. Huddled little old men, with a bad sense of humour, laughing raucously, and eating fish....anyone see the connection? Anyone? No just me then...

3. Penguins

   #3

   I'm suprised one of the many penguins that roam this site havn't responded to this.

4. Penguins

   #4

   Yes I would like some scientific facts about Penguins from Penguins themselves. But this nice thread here is not meant to be about induvidual
   penguins but rather about Penguins in general.

5. Penguins

   #5

   Diet and Eating Habits of the Penguins
   
   --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
   
   A. Food preferences and resources
   
   1 . Penguins eat krill (a shrimplike crustacean in the family Euphausiidae), squids, and fishes. Various species of penguins have slightly different food preferences, which reduces competition among species.
   
   2. The smaller penguin species of the Antarctic and the subantarctic primarily feed on krill and squids. Species found farther north tend to eat fishes.
   
   3. Adélies feed primarily on small krill, while chinstraps forage for large krill.
   
   4. Emperors and kings primarily eat fishes and squids.
   
   
   Krill comprises a substantial portion of the diets of Antarctic and subantarctic penguin species.
   
   B. Food intake
   
   1 . Intake varies with the quantity and variety of food available from different areas at different times of the year.
   
   2. A colony of 5 million Adélies may eat nearly 8 million kg (17.6 million lb.) of krill and small fishes daily.
   
   C. Method of collecting and eating food
   
   1 . Penguins feed at sea. Most feeding occurs within 15.3 to 18.3 m (50-60 ft.) of the surface. The location of prey can vary seasonally and even daily.
   
   2. Penguins primarily rely on their vision while hunting. It is not known how penguins locate prey in the darkness, at night, or at great depths, but some scientists hypothesize that penguins are helped by the fact that many oceanic squids, crustaceans, and fishes are bioluminescent (they produce light).
   
   3. Penguins catch prey with their bills and swallow it whole while swimming. Penguins have a spiny tongue and powerful jaws to grip slippery prey.
   
   4. Different species travel various distances from the colony in search of food.
   
   a. Hunting areas may range from 15 km (9 mi.) from the colony for Adélies to nearly 900 km (559 mi.) from the colony for king penguins (del Hoyo, et al., 1992). Emperor penguins may cover 164 to 1,454 km (102-903 mi.) in a single foraging trip.
   
   b. Penguins walk and toboggan from feeding grounds to rookeries. When fishing grounds are far, penguins will feed in seal holes and other openings in the ice.
   
   D. Fasting
   
   1. Penguins go through annual fasting periods. Prior to fasting, penguins build a fat layer, which provides energy.
   
   a. Penguins fast for prolonged periods during breeding seasons; they do not leave nesting areas to feed. Some penguins fast throughout the entire courtship, nesting, and incubation periods.
   
   b. Penguins also fast during annual molting periods. The temporary reduction in insulation and waterproofing caused by the loss of feathers during a molt prohibits penguins from entering the water to feed. Their fat layer provides energy until the molt is over ..
   c. Chicks fast near the time they are ready to shed juvenile feathers for adult plumage. Usually by this time, the parents no longer are feeding the chick. Growth stops during this fasting period, but resumes once the molt is complete.
   
   2. The length of fasting depends on penguin species, sex, and type of fasting. The king and emperor penguins have the longest fasting periods.
   
   a. Breeding male king penguins may fast for up to 54 days during courtship and the first incubation shift.
   
   b. Breeding male emperor penguins may fast 90 to 120 days during courtship, breeding, and the entire incubation period.

6. Penguins

   #6

   A. Social behavior
   
   1. Penguins are among the most social of all birds. All species are colonial to some degree
   
   2. Penguins may swim and feed in groups, but some may be solitary when diving for food. Emperor penguins have been observed feeding in groups with coordinated diving ..
   
   3. During the breeding season some species come ashore and nest in huge colonies called rookeries. Some rookeries include hundreds of thousands of penguins and cover hundreds of square kilometers.
   
   4. Penguins exhibit intricate courting and mate-recognition behavior. Elaborate visual and vocal displays help establish and maintain nesting territories.
   
   5. Although king penguins are highly gregarious at rookery sites throughout the year, they usually travel in small groups of 5 to 20 individuals.
   
   6. Penguins communicate by vocalizing and performing physical behaviors called "displays." They use many vocal and visual displays to communicate nesting territories and mating information. They also use displays in partner and chick recognition, and defense against intruders.

7. Penguins

   #7

   B. Individual behavior
   
   1. Navigation.
   
   Studies with Adélies indicate that they use the sun to navigate from land to sea. They adjust for the sun's changing position in the sky throughout the day.
   
   2. Preening.
   
   a. Penguins preen their feathers frequently. Feathers must be maintained in prime condition to ensure waterproofing and insulation.
   
   b. Penguins preen with their bills. A gland near the base of the tail secretes oil that the penguin distributes throughout its feathers.
   
   c. Penguins preen for several minutes in the water by rubbing their bodies with their flippers while twisting and turning over.

8. Penguins

   #8

   A. Vocalizations
   
   1. Penguin calls (vocalizations) are individually identifiable, allowing partners to recognize each other and also their chick. This is important since the members of a large colony of penguins are nearly indistinguishable on sight .
   
   2. Research has identified differences in the calls of male and female emperor penguins. These differences probably function in courtship and mate selection.
   
   3. There are three main kinds of penguin calls.
   
   a. The contact call is usually used at sea to assist in visual recognition of colony members. The contact call of emperor and king penguins can be heard one kilometer (0.6 mi.) .
   
   b. The display call is the most complex of all the calls and is used between partners in a colony. The call must convey information on territorial, sexual, and individual recognition.
   
   c. The threat call is the simplest and is used to defend a territory and warn against predators

9. Penguins

   #9

   Appendix: penguin species
   
   emperor
   Aptenodytes forsteri
   size: 11 2 cm (44 in.), 27 to 41 kg (60-90 lb.)
   distribution: circumpolar on Antarctic continent within limits of pack-ice (Marchant, 1990); one of two species restricted to the Antarctic (the other is the Adelie); generally avoid open water beyond limits of floating ice (Marchant, 1990).
   population: 135,000 to 175,000 pairs
   current status: not globally threatened, stable with some local fluctuations
   
   king
   Aptenodytes patagonicus
   size: 94 cm (37 in.), 13.5 to 16 kg (30-35 lb.)
   distribution: subantarctic islands and peninsulas (Marchant, 1990); usually forage in ice-free waters (Marchant, 1990); mainly over shelf and slope areas (Stahl, et al., 1990). Most juveniles oceanic; observed several hundred kilometers from nearest colony (Ainley, et al., 1984).
   population: more than 1 million pairs
   Current status: not globally threatened; stable or increasing
   
   Adélie
   Pygoscelis adeliae
   size: 46 to 61 cm (1 8-24 in.), 3.6 to 4.5 kg (8-1 0 lb.)
   distribution: circumpolar on Antarctic continent within limits of pack-ice (Marchant, 1990); is restricted to the Antarctic (along with emperor penguins).
   population: 4,169,390 breeding pairs (del Hoyo, et al., 1992)
   current status: not globally threatened; stable or increasing

10. Penguins

    #10

    gentoo
    Pygoscelis papua
    
    
    size: 61 to 76 cm (24-30 in.), 5.5 to 6.4 kg (12-14 lb.)
    distribution: circumpolar in subantarctic and antarctic waters; avoid pack ice and continental coasts, except near the Antarctic peninsula; usually remain near breeding islands throughout year (Marchant, 1990)
    population: 260,000 to 300,000 pairs
    current status: not globally threatened; generally stable
    
    
    --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    
    chinstrap
    Pygoscelis antarctica
    
    size: 46 to 61 cm (1 8-24 in.), 4 kg (9 lb.)
    distribution: antarctic and subantarctic islands population: 6.5 million pairs
    current status: not globally threatened
    
    
    
    
    
    
    --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    
    rockhopper
    Eudyptes chrysocome
    
    size: 41 to 46 cm (i 6-18 in.), about 2.3 to 2.7 kg (5-6 lb.)
    distribution: subantarctic islands population: 3.5 million pairs
    current status: not globally threatened; possibly stable
    
    
    --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    
    macaroni
    Eudyptes chrysolophus
    
    size: 51 to 61 cm (20-24 in.), 4.5 kg (1 0 lb.)
    distribution: subantarctic islands in the Atlantic and Indian Oceans
    population: 11,654,000 pairs
    current status: not globally threatened, generally increasing
    
    
    
    
    
    
    --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    
    royal
    Eudyptes schlegeli
    
    size: 66 to 76 cm (26-30 in.), 5.5 kg (1 2 lb.)
    distribution: Macquarie and Campbell Islands; also around the New Zealand coast
    population: 850,000 pairs
    current status: not globally threatened; stable
    
    
    
    
    --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    
    Fiordland crested
    Eudyptes pachyrhynchus
    
    
    size: 61 cm (24 in.), 2.7 to 3 kg (6-7 lb.)
    distribution: subantarctic islands and New Zealand
    population: 5,000 to 1 0,000 pairs
    current status: not globally threatened; considered near-threatened, though stable
    
    
    --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    
    erect-crested
    Eudyptes sclateri
    
    size: 63.5 cm (25 in.), 2.7 to 3.5 kg (6-7.7 lb.)
    distribution: Australia; New Zealand; and Bounty, Campbell, and Auckland Islands
    population: more than 200,000 pairs
    current status: not globally threatened; generally stable
    
    
    --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    
    Snares Island
    Eudyptes robustus
    
    size: 63.5 cm (25 in.), 2.7 to 3 kg (6-7 lb.)
    distribution: restricted to Snares Island, south of New Zealand
    population: 33,000 pairs
    current status: not globally threatened; presently stable
    
    
    
    
    
    
    --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    
    yellow-eyed
    Megadyptes antipodes
    size: 76 cm (30 in.), 6 kg (1 3 lb.)
    distribution: southeast New Zealand
    population: 1,540 to 1,855 pairs
    current status: vulnerable (IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals); population has decreased 40% in last 40 years
    
    
    
    
    --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    
    fairy
    Eudyptula minor
    size: 41 cm (16 in.), about 1 kg (2.2 lb.)
    distribution: southern Australia and New Zealand
    population: less than 1 million total birds
    current status: not globally threatened
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    
    --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    
    Magellanic
    Spheniscus magellanicus
    
    
    size: 61 to 71 cm (24-28 in.), 5 kg (11 lb.)
    distribution: Falkland Islands and along the coast of Chile and Argentina
    population: 4.5 to 10 million birds
    current status: not globally threatened
    
    
    --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    
    Humboldt
    Spheniscus humboldti
    
    
    size: 56 to 66 cm (22-26 in.), 4 kg (9 lb.)
    distribution: islands off the west coast of South America and along the coast of Peru and Chile population: 20,000 total birds
    current status: insufficiently known (IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals), CITES I
    
    
    --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    
    African
    Spheniscus demersus
    
    size: 61 to 71 cm (24-28 in.), 3 kg (7 lb.)
    distribution: South African waters population: 50,000 to 171,000 pairs
    current status: insufficiently known (IUCN Red List of Threatened Animals), CITES II; general decline continues
    
    
    
    
    --------------------------------------------------------------------------------
    
    Galapagos
    Spheniscus mendiculus
    
    size: 53 cm (21 in.), 2.5 kg (5-6 lb.)
    distribution: Galapagos Islands, off the coast of Ecuador, almost astride the equator; is the most northerly penguin species
    population: 6,000 to 15,000 total birds
    current status: endangered (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Endangered Species List)
    
    Is there anyone that knows of another kind? Do not be shy, step forward!

11. Penguins

    #11

    Woho, Penguin power.
    This place shall be the lush grove of Penguin knowlegde!
    I name it; the art of the Penguin.

12. Penguins

    #12

    Nooooo - THIS is the art of the penguin!
    
    
    http://img56.exs.cx/img56/6496/Shadspenguin.gif

13. Penguins

    #13

    I like your penguin species. I see an idea for a rank system using them....hmmmmm
    
    SE has got you, THAT is THE art of the penguin.

14. Penguins

    #14

    Oh well, new name then; Conserning penguins
    
    Where have I heard that one before?.....Hmmm.

15. Penguins

    #15

    An interesting taxonomy...
    Yet hopelessly unschooled in the true subtleties of Penguin ranks and racial interaction, and of course unknowing of the true Penguin social structure.
    Perhaps I should endeavour to enlighten them.

16. Penguins

    #16

    A. Size
    
    1. The emperor penguin is the largest of all living penguins, standing 1.1 m (3.7 ft.) and weighing 27 to 41 kg (60-90 lb.).
    
    2. The smallest of the penguins is the fairy penguin, standing just 41 cm (16 in.) and weighing about 1 kg (2.2 lb.). For a complete listing of sizes by species, see the Appendix.
    
    B. Body shape
    
    1 .The penguin body is fusiform and streamlined, adapted for swimming
    . A penguin has a large head, short neck, and elongated body.
    
    2. The tail is short and wedge-shaped.
    
    3. The legs and webbed feet are set far back on the body, which causes penguins to stand upright when on land.

17. Penguins

    #17

    C. Coloration
    
    1. All adult penguins are countershaded; that is they are dark on their dorsal (back) surfaces and white on their ventral (underside) surfaces. The dark dorsal side blends in with the dark ocean depths when viewed from above. The light ventral side blends in with the lighter surface of the sea when viewed from below. The result is that predators or prey do not see a contrast between the countershaded animal and the environment.
    
    2. Many species have distinct markings and coloration.
    
    a. The emperor has a black head, chin, and throat with broad yellow ear patches on the sides of the head.
    
    b. The king penguin has a black head, chin, and throat with vivid orange, tear-shaped ear patches. The orange coloration extends to the upper chest.
    
    c. The Adélie has a black head. Distinctive white eye rings appear during the breeding season.
    
    d. The gentoo has a black head with white eyelids, and a distinct triangular white patch above each eye, usually extending over the head.
    
    e. The top of a chinstrap's head is black and the face is white, with a stripe of black extending under the chin.
    
    f. The crested penguins (genus Eudyptes), such as the rockhopper and macaroni, are distinguished by orange or yellow feather crests on the sides of the head, above the eyes.
    
    g. The yellow-eyed penguin, as its name suggests, has yellow eyes and a stripe of pale yellow feathers extending over its dark head.
    
    h. The fairy penguin, also known as the little blue, has slate-blue to black feathers and a white chin and chest.
    
    i. Temperate penguins (genus Spheniscus), such as the Humboldt and Magellanic, have unfeathered fleshy areas on the face and one or two distinct black stripes across the chest.

18. Penguins

    #18

    E. Head
    
    1 . Different species of penguins can be identified by their head and facial markings.
    
    2. Penguins have a variety of bill shapes which are used to capture fish, squid, and crustaceans. Generally, the bill tends to be long and thin in species that are primarily fish eaters, but shorter and stouter in those that mainly feed on krill. The mouth is lined with horny, rear-directed spines to aid in swallowing live prey.
    
    3. Eyes.
    
    a. The color of irises varies among the species.
    
    (1) Many species have brown, reddish-brown, or golden-brown eyes.
    
    (2) Rockhopper and macaroni penguins have red eyes.
    
    (3) Fairy (little blue) penguins have bluish-gray eyes.
    
    (4) As their name implies, yellow-eyed penguins have yellow eyes.
    
    b. The pupil of a penguin eye is circular. When constricted, however, the pupil of the king penguin is square.
    
    c. Like many animals, penguins have a nictitating membrane, sometimes called a third eyelid. This is a clear covering that protects the eye from injury.

19. Penguins

    #19

    F. Legs and feet
    
    1. Penguin legs are short and strong. Feet are webbed, with visible claws. The legs are set far back on the body to aid in streamlining and steering while swimming. This placement also causes penguins to stand vertically and walk upright.
    
    2. Penguins walk with short steps or hops, sometimes using their bills or tails to assist themselves on steep climbs. The maximum walking speed for Adélie penguins is 3.9 kph (2.4 mph). Emperors and kings walk slowly and do not hop. The maximum speed for emperors is 2.8 kph (1.7 mph). Some species, like the rockhopper, jump from rock to rock.
    
    3. Antarctic species can move much faster over ice by "tobogganing" on their bellies, using their flippers and feet to help them move along.

20. Penguins

    #20

    G. Tail
    
    The tail is short and wedge-shaped, with 14 to 18 stiff tail feathers. Members of the genus Pygoscelis have longer tail feathers, which they often use as a prop when on land.

21. Penguins

    #21

    H. Feathers
    
    1. Shiny feathers uniformly overlap to cover a penguin's skin. Feathers are highly specialized-short, broad, and closely spaced, helping to keep water away from the skin. Tufts of down on the feather shafts contribute to the insulative properties of the feathers.
    
    2. Penguins have more feathers than most other birds, with about 70 feathers per square inch.
    
    3. Most penguin species go through one complete molt (shed their feathers) each year, usually after the breeding season. The exception is the Galapagos penguin, which usually goes through two molts annually.
    
    a. Molting is an essential function, as feathers wear out during the year. Feathers become worn when penguins rub against each other, come in contact with the ground and water, and regularly preen (clean, rearrange, and oil) their feathers.
    
    b. The new feather grows under the old one, pushing it out. The old feather does not fall out until the new one is completely in place. The molt is patchy and can give individual penguins a scruffy look.
    
    c. During the molt, feathers lose some of their insulating and waterproofing capabilities, and penguins stay out of the water until their plumage is restored to optimum condition.
    
    d. Depending on the species, the average length of the molt varies from 13 days for the Galapagos penguin to 34 for the emperor penguin.
    
    e. Because penguins don't enter the water to feed during a molt, they fast. Before their molt, they build a fat layer, which provides energy until the molt is over.
    
    1 . Generally, penguins are not sexually dimorphic; males and females look alike. Crested penguins are exceptions: the males are more robust and have larger bills.
    
    2. During the breeding season, female penguins are sometimes identifiable by muddy footprints on their backs, left by males during mating activity.

22. Penguins

    #22

    We should make stats for the Penguins, and a whole gaming world of flat icy land. And then we should start an RPG.

23. Penguins

    #23

    A. Incubation
    
    1. Incubation is the time spent warming the egg before it hatches. With the exception of emperor penguins, partners take turns incubating eggs, allowing each mate to leave to feed for several days at a time.
    
    2. A female emperor penguin transfers a single egg to the top of her mate's feet. The female goes to sea to feed while the male incubates the egg alone. She returns several weeks later, usually just before the egg is ready to hatch, to relieve her mate so that he may feed. The male fasts throughout the courtship, nesting, and incubation periods. He will live off reserves of body fat which may be 3 to 4 cm (1.2-1.6 in.) thick, losing up to 45% of his body weight.
    
    3. The incubation period varies with species. It may be as short as one month, as in the erect-crested penguins, or as long as 62 to 66 days for the emperors.
    
    4. The incubation temperature for penguins is approximately 36°C (96.5°F); it is a bit lower for the larger species. Emperor penguins can maintain an incubation temperature of 31°C (87.8°F) in an environment that is -60°C (-76°F)
    
    5. The greatest single cause for reproductive failure in some species is the mistiming between parents of nest relief during incubation. This usually occurs when the female fails to return from a foraging trip before the male deserts the nest. A male will spontaneously leave the nest and eggs when the motivation to feed overcomes that for incubating the eggs.
    
    B. Hatching

24. Penguins

    #24

    B. Hatching
    
    Chicks first "pip" by poking a small hole in the egg. They then chip at the shell until they can push off the top. Chicks may take up to three days to chip their way out..

25. Penguins

    #25

    C. Chicks at hatching
    
    1. A fine down covers most newly hatched chicks. (King penguin chicks hatch naked and grow down within a few weeks.)
    
    a. Down feathers of different species may be white, gray, black, or brown.
    
    b. Down feathers are not waterproof, and chicks must remain out of the water until they acquire their juvenile plumage. Adult plumage is acquired at about one year.
    
    2. In all species, the coloration and markings of chicks separate them from adults. Scientists believe that adult penguins do not perceive the young birds as competitors for mates or nesting sites. The chicks'coloration may elicit parental behavior from the adults instead.
    
    
    Emperor chicks have striking facial markings.
    
    3. The striking markings of emperor chicks may help to make the chicks more visible against the ice and snow; significant because emperors don't have individual nest sites where the young can be found.

26. Penguins

    #26

    D. Care of the chicks
    
    1 . Chicks require attentive parents for survival. Both parents feed the chick regurgitated food. Adults recognize and feed only their own chicks. Parents are able to identify their young by their chick's distinctive call.
    
    2. Male emperor penguins exhibit a feature unique among penguins. If the chick hatches before the female returns, the male, despite his fasting, is able to produce and secrete a curdlike substance from his esophagus to feed the chick allowing for survival and growth for up to two weeks.
    
    
    A parent penguin feeds its chick regurgitated food.
    
    3. Parents brood chicks (keep them warm) by covering them with their brood patch.
    
    4. In some species, partially grown chicks gather in groups called creches. (Creche is a French word for crib.).
    
    a. Creches provide some protection from predators and the elements.
    
    b. Creches were once thought to be functional nurseries with adults providing protection and communal care. This has proven not to be the case since there is no feeding other than by parents.
    
    c. Temperate or subtropical crested penguins, like the macaroni or erect-crested, and penguins that nest in burrows, like the fairy or Humboldt, do not form creches.

27. Penguins

    #27

    E. Chick development
    
    A chick depends on its parents for survival between hatching and the growth of its waterproof feathers. This period may range from seven weeks for Adélie chicks, to 13 months for king chicks. Once a chick has fledged (replaced its juvenile down with waterproof feathers), it is able to enter the water and becomes independent of its parents.

28. Penguins

    #28

    knowing that much about penguins just can't be healthy.....*Danu shakes head

29. Penguins

    #29

    He has a book or website.

30. Penguins

    #30

    A book actually.
    Found it lying around and I thought hey, the citadel might require some info on penguins. But as time goes by I will probably stop posting since it is utterly pointless and un-funny.

31. Penguins

    #31

    A. Longevity
    
    1. The average lifespan of penguins is probably 15 to 20 years. Some individuals live considerably longer.
    
    2. High mortality occurs among the young.
    
    a. Winter starvation may claim the lives of 50% of king chicks.
    
    b. Emperor chicks may experience a 90% mortality within the first year of life.
    
    c. When mortality affects one chick in species producing two offspring of moderate size differences, it is usually the smaller chick that does not survive.

32. Penguins

    #32

    B. Predators
    
    1. When in the water, penguins may be eaten by leopard seals, fur seals, sea lions, sharks, or killer whales.
    
    2. On land, foxes, snakes, and introduced predators such as feral dogs, cats, and stoats (members of the weasel family) prey on eggs and chicks of some penguin species, including the yellow-eyed and Galapagos penguins.
    
    3. Antarctic and subantarctic eggs and chicks are susceptible to predatory birds such as antarctic skuas, sheathbills, and giant petrels (del Hoyo, et al., 1992). These predators may prey on chicks that have strayed from the protection of the creche or are sickly and too weak to defend themselves.
    
    a. Skuas may work in pairs to obtain their prey. One bird distracts the penguin on the nest, and the other swoops in to steal the egg or chick.
    
    b. Sheathbills intercept chinstrap regurgitation as penguin parents feed their offspring.
    
    4. Gulls and ibises eat 40% of African penguin eggs.
    
    5. Fairy penguins rely on burrows and a nocturnal lifestyle to avoid predators such as swamp harriers, peregrines, gulls, snakes, rats, and lizards.

33. Penguins

    #33

    C. Human Impact
    
    1 . Historians believe that indigenous peoples have hunted some species of penguins and taken eggs for centuries.
    
    2. Mass exploitation occurred when early explorers, sealers, whalers, and fishermen turned to penguin colonies as sources of fresh meat and eggs. Sometimes more than 300,000 eggs were taken in annual harvests from one African island. Explorers were known to kill and salt 3,000 penguins in a day for voyage provisions. Penguins were easy prey because of their inability to fly and their seeming lack of fear of humans. Although egg-collecting was banned in 1969, illegal harvesting continues today.
    
    3. During much of the 19th century, and into the 20th, penguin skins were used to make caps, slippers, and purses. Feathers were used for clothing decorations and as mattress stuffing. Inhabitants of the remote island grouping in the South Atlantic, Tristan da Cunha, still depend on penguins for eggs, feathers, oil, and skins.
    
    4. The extraction of oil from penguins' fat layers became economically important in the 1800s and early 1900s. Oil was used for lighting, tanning leather, and fuel. In the Falkland Islands alone, an estimated 2.5 million penguins were killed within a 16-year timespan. The oil industry came to a halt in 1918 due to protests by the general public and because of cheaper and better quality chemical products.
    
    5. Humboldt penguin guano has great commercial value as a nitrogen-rich fertilizer. Although the Incas used penguin and seabird guano to improve their crops as far back as 500 B.C., they carefully managed the resource by extracting it at a slower rate than it was being produced. Guano became a major product of international trade in the 1800s, and in the early 1900s the deposits were in danger of being depleted. Guano harvesting is better managed today, but overexploitation of this commodity is a serious threat to the Humboldt population.

34. Penguins

    #34

    6. In some places, such as islands in the southern Indian Ocean, fishermen still use penguin meat for bait.
    
    7. Human competition for food sources can affect penguin populations. Overfishing of anchovetta (a small fish), the primary food source of the Humboldt penguin, has contributed to their population decline.
    
    8. The introduction of predators has had devastating effects in some areas. Rats, dogs, pigs, and ferrets have been known to prey on chicks, eggs, and even adult penguins. Introduced herbivores, such as sheep and rabbits, cause serious deterioration of habitat.
    
    9. Colonies of penguins have been affected by building activities and road construction. One colony of king penguins at Iles Crozet (a small group of islands in the Indian Ocean) was completely destroyed. A nearby area was cleared, and fortunately, the penguins recolonized.
    
    10. Trash in the ocean can affect seabirds. Penguins have been known to ingest plastic or become tangled in debris, causing injury and death.
    
    11. Oil spills affect penguins.
    
    a. Oil fouls their feathers, reducing the waterproofing and insulating properties of their plumage. The birds become susceptible to hypothermia (chilling).
    
    b. Penguins also ingest the oil while trying to preen, poisoning them and causing internal organ damage. c. Oil spills are a continued threat. In June 1994, an estimated 40,000 African penguins were affected by an oil spill off South Africa's Cape peninsula. More than 2,400 tons of fuel oil was spilled. The disaster occurred during the penguins' breeding season, affecting the survival of chicks and unhatched eggs. The long-term success of emergency clean-up efforts probably will not be determined for several years.
    
    12. Traces of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and other pesticides (chlorinated hydrocarbons) have been found in the tissues of Adélie and chinstrap penguins. Scientists speculate that these pollutants were transported by ocean currents or other animals. Their appearance in antarctic penguins is significant in that these toxic substances have now reached the pristine Antarctic.
    
    
    Enthusiastic sightseers must be careful not to interfere with normal penguin activity.
    
    13. Activity that may seem harmless, such as aircraft flying over penguin colonies, may cause panic and stampedes, resulting in injuries and easy predation.
    
    14. The popularity of "ecotourism" is increasing with cruise ships frequenting antarctic waters. Enthusiastic sightseers must be careful not to interfere with normal penguin activity by staying back and keeping noise levels down.
    
    15. Penguins may be indirectly affected by past hunting of whales. The increase of some penguin species over the last 30 years may be attributed to the greater availability of krill following the reduction of some antarctic whale populations. However, the commercial value of krill may encourage large-scale harvesting of this resource in south polar waters, which would impact penguins and other marine animals that rely upon krill as a food source.

35. Penguins

    #35

    D. El Nino
    
    El Nino is a natural phenomenon that involves a change in wind and ocean current patterns, which warms surface temperatures and reduces the upwelling of nutrient-rich water. A decrease in nutrients affects plankton, krill, and small fishes, which comprise the food supply for marine animals. The penguin species most affected are the Humboldt and Galapagos penguins. The 1982 El Nino caused a 65% depletion of the Humboldt population off the coast of Peru (Collar and Andrew, 1988). Up to 77% of the Galipagos population was wiped out, leaving only 463 total birds. A slow recovery began in 1985.

36. Penguins

    #36

    A. Sexual maturity
    
    1. Like most seabirds, penguins tend to be long-lived. They may take three to eight years to reach sexual maturity.
    
    2. With some of the smaller species, breeding may begin at three or four years, but most larger species are not accomplished breeders until much later. On average, breeding does not begin until the fifth year, and a few males do not breed until the eighth year.

37. Penguins

    #37

    B. Mating activity
    
    1 . Breeding seasons differ from species to species.
    
    a. Most species have an annual breeding season - spring through summer.
    
    b. The king penguin has the longest breeding cycle of all the penguin species, lasting 14 to 16 months. A female king penguin may produce a chick twice in every three breeding seasons.
    
    c. Emperor penguins breed annually during the antarctic winter, June through August.
    
    (1) During the emperor breeding season, air temperature may drop to -60°C (-76°F) and winds may reach speeds up to 200 kph (124 mph).
    
    (2) For most of the winter, antarctic penguins live in an environment of darkness or half-light. Why emperors breed during the harshest season of the year is unknown, but some scientists speculate that when the chicks become independent five months later (in January or February, the antarctic summer), environmental conditions are more favorable for the young birds.
    
    d. The fairy penguin breeds throughout the year and has the shortest breeding cycle, about 50 days.
    
    e. Some of the temperate penguins, like the Humboldt and the African, tend to nest throughout the year.

38. Penguins

    #38

    2. Courtship
    
    a. Courtship varies among the species. It generally begins with both visual and auditory displays. In many species, males display first to establish a nest site and then to attract a mate.
    
    b. Most penguin species are monogamous (one male breeds with one female during a mating season) ; however, research has shown that some females may have one to three partners in one season and some males may have one or two partners.
    
    c. Mate selection is up to the female, and it is the females that compete for the males.
    
    d. A female usually selects the same male from the preceding season (Sparks and Soper, 1987). Adélie penguins have been documented re-pairing with the previous year's mate 62% of the time. Chinstraps re-paired in 82% of possible cases, and gentoos re-paired 90% of the time (Trivelpiece, 1990). In one study of Adélies, females paired with males within minutes of arriving at the colony.
    
    e. When a female selects a different mate it is usually because her mate from the previous season fails to return to the nesting area. Another reason may be mistiming in returning to the nesting area. If they arrive at different times and miss each other, one or the other penguin may obtain a new mate.

39. Penguins

    #39

    C. Nesting
    
    1. Nest site fidelity.
    
    a. Studies have shown that most penguin species tend to be faithful to the same rookeries and return each year. Most penguins return to the same territory within the rookery. Male Adélie penguins were 99% faithful to the previous year's territory, chinstraps were 94% faithful, and gentoos were 63% faithful.
    
    b. Males arrive first to the rookeries to establish and defend their nesting sites. In a study on Adélie and chinstrap penguins, females arrived one day and five days after the males, respectively.
    
    c. Some scientists believe that penguins build up numbers in a single rookery rather than colonize new areas because mature birds return to the rookery where they hatched when it is time to breed. Some penguin rookeries number millions of birds.

40. Penguins

    #40

    2. Nesting habitats vary among species.
    
    a. Emperor penguins form colonies around the shoreline of the antarctic continent and adjacent islands. They prefer sites on a fairly level surface of ice in areas sheltered from wind, with easy access to feeding areas.
    
    b. King penguins nest and breed on subantarctic and antarctic islands. They prefer beaches and valleys of level ground or gentle slopes, free of snow and ice, and accessible to the se.
    
    c. Adélies often nest 50 to 60 km (31.1-37.3 mi.) from the edge of the sea ice on the antarctic continent and nearby on rocky islands, peninsulas, beaches, hillsides, valleys, and other areas free of ice.
    
    d. Gentoo penguin colonies can be inland or coastal on antarctic and subantarctic islands and peninsulas. They tend to breed on ice-free ground on beaches, in valleys, on inland hills, and on cliff tops.
    
    e. Chinstrap penguins nest on fairly steep slopes.
    
    f. Fiordland crested penguins nest in a wet, coastal rain forest habitat, under bushes, between tree roots, in holes, or in caves.
    
    g. Galapagos penguins nest in volcanic caves or cracks in rock.
    
    
    Some penguins, like these gentoos, construct nests of small stones.
    
    h. The temperate penguins and the fairy penguin nest underground in burrows. These species breed in areas where the climate can range from tropical to subantarctic. Underground burrows provide an environment with a relatively constant temperature (about 25° to 29°C, or 70° to 84°F) for the eggs and chicks.
    
    i. Humboldt penguins burrow and create nesting sites in guano (fecal) deposits (Scolaro).

Cavern of Inane Natter · All categories · Guildhall